Education in Future

Assalamu’alaykum wr, wb!

Nowadays, education is developing well through the development of science and technology. Students can enlarge their knowledge or get information just by clicking the mouse to search certain information related to their needs from surfing the internet. Students can get unlimited access to get unlimited information spread out through internet. Some schools in Europe, Australia, and in some other development country have opened the virtual class. We do not have to attend in the real class to listen the lesson from the teachers. Then, we spend our time in the class. We just have to read the explanation from the teacher or lecturer and then do the exercises or assignments then submit them in the specific deadline. It is very flexible learning.

Many research conducted by experts is also very helpful for the development of teachers and teaching methods. There are various ways to teach, to handle the students, to correct students’ error, to give elicitation in class, etc. Especially, the method to teach English as Second language, it has been developing into the whole new stage. There is significant development in the methods in teaching. It is begun with GTM (Grammar Translation Method) and the new one is CLT (Communicative Language Teaching). This is one of the signs that the education world is now entering the new age.

How about the education in future? Is it going to be better? Or is it going to be worse? In my analysis, the education world will be much more better in the term of science and technology. Some years later, the education is not only about attending the formal school which only reach limited students around the location of the school, to get the sertificate or diploma, but also education will be able to reach many students in many places by using the technology in the future without attending the formal school for certain span of time. So, someone will not be afraid of the distance when choosing the school which he likes to choose. It will be a great experience since the education will be much more simple, untied, and flexible.

But otherwise, in term of morality, the education world will face great problem about this problem. We know that the Indonesian students (Junior High School and Senior High School Students) are involved in many bad morality cases. Such as pregnancy, sex before married, drugs, etc. Do you know why this is happening in Indonesia? At least, there are two reasons why this problem is occurred and going to be a great problem in education world, especially in Indonesia.

First, it is because the curriculum, especially in Indonesia, is not applying the integrated curriculum which combining every knowledge which is taught in class with the religious materials. Well, talking about religions in the world, every religion in the world has only lesson about morality and religious lesson (act of devotion). But, it will be different case when we talk about Islam, it is the one and only religion which contains everything (in Al-Qur’an and Al-Hadits) such as economic system, politic, astronomy, etc. and when we combine the knowledge with the religion, then the students will not only master the science and technology but also the students will be a good and kind students or and also be a good Muslim. Islam also teaches someone to be a good man wherever and whenever they are. For example: In economy, Muslim will not be allowed to monopolize the market which can make the other Muslim lost his/her chance to open trade, etc.

Second, the morality will be a great problem for education world in Indonesia, because the government has failed to protect the young generation from the western infiltration through westernization or modernization. The western culture which is always identic with the word “modern” and “freedom” has succeeded to change the young generation of Indonesia to follow and copy the western culture which is often inappropriate with eastern culture and Islam. The culture has been campaigned and shown actively and massively through any media. So without any surprise, step by step, the Indonesian is following the western and becoming western (the thought, the fashion, etc)

Finally, the solution to prevent Indonesia facing the great problem about morality is by changing the curriculum and stopping the westernization in Indonesia. Insyaallah, Indonesian students will be a good Muslim and great persons which are not only have good morality but also have broad knowledge. Such as: Ibnu Sina (Avisena), Al-Khawarizmi, etc.

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Research Method

Assalamu'alaykum wr, wb! 

Research method

I want something new. Research will provide it

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.

Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

There are two ways to conduct research:
Primary research: This research uses primary source, i.e., original documents and data.
Secondary research: This research uses secondary sources, i.e., a synthesis of, interpretation of, or discussions about primary sources.

There are two major research designs:
Qualitative research and Quantitative research. Researchers choose one of these two tracks according to the nature of the research problem they want to observe and the research questions they aim to answer:

Qualitative research
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes. This type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.

Quantitative research
Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.

Source: en.wikipedia.org

I have finished Research Method lecture at fourth semester. The final project of this lecture is try to make the research proposal. Here, because someone wants me to share my result of making the proposal, I post this entry.
:)
Do you want to have my proposal.
Download. here
and here, if you want to get my friend proposal. (thank to Sri Surya Dewi and friends).

Password to extract:
www.harrythewise.blogspot.com

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Pause-Defined Units Analysis

Assalamu'alaykum wr, wb!

Pause-Defined Units

I'm about to explain and give example of pause-defined units analysis in Discourse. Read the following article, it is made by me and my friends and also this is our final project to finish our lecture in Discourse Analysis class.

If you want to get our final project soft-file. you may download. here

the password is:
harrythewise.blogspot.com

Here I will give you some explanation about pause-defined units.

  

Chapter 2

Theoretical Background

a. The Structure of Information

In structure of information in Discourse, it focuses on the smallest units of discourse structure: small local units at the level of phrase or clause. We consider how information is packaged within such small structures and, particularly, what resources are available to speakers and writers for indicating to their addressees the status of information which is introduced into the discourse.[1]

b. Pause-defined units

People working on intonation in discourse have found a problem with the principled identification of tone groups by phonological criteria alone and have resorted to working with units bounded by pauses in the stream of speech (for example, Chafe, 1979; Brown, Currie and Kenworthy, 1980; Butterworth, 1980; Dease, 1980).[2] 

Adopted by Crystal (1969), Halliday (1967, 1994) or Brown at al. 1980, Crystal and Halliday allow for more than one tone per tone-unit, and allow pauses to occur within tone-units. Brown at all, used the concept of the pause-defined unit. So, analyses using their approaches would have resulted in fewer or longer tone-units.[3] 

At first glance, seem a rather precarious undertaking, because of the use of pause phenomena as a basis for building an analysis of chunking in spoken discourse. The number and duration of pauses used by a speaker will obviously vary according to his rate of speech. It would be, unlikely then, that one particular pause length, say one second, would have a single function for all speakers in all speech situations. However, working with pause will provide one obvious advantage that is they are readily identifiable and, apart from the very briefest planning pauses, it has no difficulty in agreeing on their location.

In an investigation of this type, it is important to choose the data used in the investigation so that you can generalize across speakers. A further practical point is that you should work initially on data which, believed, will result regular units which you will be able to recognize.

c. Example of pause-defined units analysis

Source data which has been analyzed before to determine the interval of each paused units in discourse.

Mr. X : Halfway down the page (0,3) draw (0,6) a red (0,4) horizontal line (0,2) of about (0,5) two inches (16) on eh (1,1) the right hand side just above their line (1,9) in black (0,1) write ON (3,2).

Miss. Y : ON (3,4)

Mr. X : Above the line (1,4) draw (0,2) a black (0,65) triangle (1,0) ehm (1,9) a right angle (0,2) triangle (1,9) starting to the left (0,2) of the red line (1,0) about (0,9) half a centimetre above it (4,0)

In the previous example of pause types, defined in terms of relatives length can be identified:

Extended pauses
it extended from between 2,0 to 3,2 seconds. It is represented by (++).

Long pauses
these pause range from 1,0-1,9 seconds in the extract. It is represented by (+)

Short pauses
these pause range between 0,1-0,6 seconds in this extract. It is represented by (-).
The result will be like this:

Mr. X : Halfway down the page (-) draw (-) a red (-) horizontal line (-) of about (-) two inches (++) on eh (+) the right hand side just above their line (+) in black (-) write ON (++).

Miss. Y : ON (++)

Mr. X : Above the line (+) draw (-) a black (+) triangle (+) ehm (+) a right angle (-) triangle (+) starting to the left (-) of the red line (+) about (+) half a centimetre above it (+)

[1] Gillian Brown and George Yule. Discourse Analysis. Page 153
[2] Gillian Brown and George Yule. Discourse Analysis. Page 160
[3] http://www.solki.jyu.fi/apples/020201/The_functional_irrhythmicality_of_spontaneous_speech.htm browsed on Friday 22 June 2012.

Error Correction In Classroom

A. Errors Correction

Let's Study How to Correct Errors and Mistakes Appropriately

When we are in teaching process, sometimes the student will make mistake sooner or later. It is only natural because the students are learners. They still need to improve their skill and enlarge their knowledge. This is the teachers’ job to help them become better. But, what can we do to correct the students’ error without offending them? How to make an appropriate respond to the students’ error? Well, in the following paragraphs we will describe how to handle the student errors appropriately.

Teachers commonly use inappropriate way to handle the students’ errors. “The single most commonly used but least effective method for addressing undesirable behavior is to verbally scold and berate a student” (Albetro & Troutman, 2006).

These are some example of inappropriate correction made by teachers commonly; How many times do I have to tell you to work quietly?, Didn’t I just tell you to get your work done?, Why are you talking when I’m talking?, Do you want me to send you to the office?, What’s going to happen if I call your mother?, What do you think you’re doing?, Don’t you think you should be using your time better?

Previous example shows us the common teachers’ responses in students’ errors. The entire examples above are not suggested to be done. Teachers’ responses should not use offensive words and offending words. Rather than using offensive and offending words, teachers’ response should be calm, consistent, brief, immediate, and respectful.

A fluent correction is a Calm correction. If a teacher is visibly upset with a student’s misbehavior, this is likely to lead other students off task. They will focus on the far more dramatic exchange between the teacher and the misbehaving student rather than instruction.

When providing error corrections Consistency is essential. This means, if a Teacher chooses to correct a particular misbehavior, the correction should occur routinely among all students each time the same misbehavior is demonstrated. For example, if we correct one student for blurting out without raising a hand to speak, but respond to other students when they blurt out answers, this is inconsistent and unfair. It creates confusion for students about which rules really apply, to whom and when.

Brevity is also important. When misbehavior occurs, our attempt to correct the problem should not make the situation worse. We should avoid talking too much. Instead, make the correction by telling the child what to do instead, and then walk away. Assume the child will comply. Don’t wait for the situation to escalate into a power struggle.

Immediate means as soon after the misbehavior as possible.Finally, a common thread through all fluent error corrections is Respect. 

Behavior corrections should never involve belittlement or ridicule of a student. Instead, the most effective corrections are matter of fact, specific statements that tell what the misbehavior was and what the student should do instead. (Sprick, Knight, Reinke & McKale, 2006, p. 55-56.)

A teacher is more likely and better able to provide effective feedback (calm, consistent, brief, immediate and respectful) if a clear continuum of response strategies is identified and implemented. Students will also benefit from knowing, in advance, what the teacher’s response will be if problem behavior is demonstrated.

B. Response Strategy
A review of research provides this continuum of strategies as effective for responding to or correcting student misbehavior.

First, when misbehavior occurs, provide students with a Prompt. Prompts are typically visual but can also be verbal. A prompt is a signal that alerts the child misbehavior has occurred and helps him/her to comply with expected behavior. Prompts can be as simple as pointing to a posted expectation or giving a verbal cue to that expectation. Other examples include finger to lips indicating quiet or silence; raised hand to decrease blurt outs, an open palm to show stop or slow down and pointing out where students should go. Prompts can be provided whole group or individually.

Next, correction of misbehavior can come from a Redirect. Redirect means the teacher specifically states the matrix behavior the child is supposed to exhibit. “Remember, being respectful means raising a hand and waiting to be called on.” or “In this class, part of being responsible is to follow directions and do your work”.

Other steps in-class option is to Re-teach. Re-teach means state and demonstrate the appropriate behavior. Re-teach goes beyond a re-direct because it gives the child an opportunity to hear and then show the appropriate behavior with immediate feedback from the teacher.

Next Providing Choice is frequently an effective strategy for managing inappropriate behavior. Choice can address location, order of completion, type of tool or variety in activity. For example, the teacher can provide choices to complete the task in another location, “You are welcome to work at your desk, at a table or on the floor.” The teacher can provide choice on the order of task completion. The teacher can provide the choice of a different type of writing instrument. “You may write in pen or pencil or you are welcome to type with a computer if you like.” Or the teacher can provide the choice of a different type of activity that accomplishes the same instructional objective.

The last is Conference. Finally, Error Correction is sometimes best addressed by conferencing with a student. Just as we do with an academic error, our goal in responding to a social or behavior error is to teach students what we want them to do instead. Remember, scolding, berating, ridicule and yelling are the LEAST effective ways for addressing misbehavior. When students make a learning error on an academic task we don’t scold or berate them. We give encouragement, show where the error was made, tell how to make a correction, give opportunities for practice and then provide immediate feedback. Same things need to happen when responding to behavioral errors. In short…using a structured conference with a student may help meet this goal.

C. Conference
These are the procedures for having an instructional conference with a student about a behavioral error;

-First, Say something positive, in private, using a quiet voice
-Next, briefly describe the problem behavior
-Third, Describe the desired alternative (what you want the student to do instead) refer to and use the language of your classroom rules.
-Fourth, State the reason why the alternative is more desirable what outcome the student is likely to get if he/she chooses the alternate behavior
-Fifth, give students an opportunity to practice the desired behavior they can tell or show the replacement or alternative.
-Last, provide positive feedback. This means as soon as the student demonstrates the desired behavior or a reasonable approximation of the desired behavior- acknowledge this effort.

Example of conference; “Max, I know you were upset because the group didn’t include you. But you responded by calling them names and trying to argue. A respectful/safe way to handle this is to walk away and talk to someone else. By walking away and not raising your voice, you won’t get in trouble and someone might be able to help you join a group. Your yelling won’t change the behavior of the other students.

D. Climate Killers
The way teacher speak will affect the students’ responses, this is a common sense. Some elements that should be avoided by the teacher in order to make the error corrections more effective;

• Sarcasm or humor at students’ expense
• Sharp or excessive criticism
• Reinforces that are not meaningful to students
• Lecturing students about behavior
• Being inconsistent in rule enforcement and reinforcement
• Having no social interaction with students
• Showing little interest in students’ lives
• Teaching lessons with no attention to student affect or stress levels during instruction
• Warning an angry student to “calm down” without providing supports to achieve that goal.

E. Climate Enhancers
In addition, positive relationships make behavior management easier. Teacher-student relationships are the most basic element of classroom climate. Teacher’s have incredible potential to be a powerful influence on student’s lives. That potential extends beyond the school day. Meaningful relationships with teachers may influence positive long-term outcomes for students.

Some elements which can be added in delivering error correction;

• Always model respectful and polite behavior
• Praise genuinely and frequently
• Set high, but reasonable and attainable expectations
• Know your students
• Spend time interacting with students
• Use effective listening skills
• Design classroom to be appealing to students
• Celebrate student success and achievement
• Use humor

http://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachingtechnique/a/l_ecorrect.htm
www.Grammarly.com/Grammar_Checker

E-Book 4 You

Assalamualaikum wr, wb!
I wanna share the book that I got from my lecture. The title of this book is Vocabulary Acquisition Implications for Reading Comprehension.
I do hope that this book will be useful for you!
thank you!

Via Media fire here
If there is problem in the previous link, you may download here

password:
harrythewise.blogspot.com


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Psycholinguistics

Assalamualaikum wr, wb!

Hi! Today I want to share some materials related to psycholinguistic. I get these materials from the lecture in psycholinguistic class. My friends have contributed much for sharing the materials. Before I share the materials that I've got in lecture, I will give some explanation what psycholinguistic is.

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of sub-disciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.[1]

Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.

Download psycholinguistic materials;

ziddu.com

Reading Principles and Teaching. Click Here

Children and Adults in Second Language Learning. Click Here

Wild and Isolated Children. Click Here
Bilingualism, Cognitive Transfer and Learning Strategies. Click Here

Second Language Teaching Methods part 1. Click Here
Second Language Teaching Methods part 2. Click Here 
Language, Thought and Culture part 1. Click Here
Language, Thought and Culture part 2. Click Here
Where does language come from? part 1. Click Here 
Where does language come from? part 2. Click Here
Language and Brain part 1. Click Here
Language and Brain part 2. Click Here


mediafire.com

Reading Principles and Teaching. Click Here

Children and Adults in Second Language Learning. Click Here

Wild and Isolated Children. Click Here
Bilingualism, Cognitive Transfer and Learning Strategies. Click Here

Second Language Teaching Methods part 1. Click Here
Second Language Teaching Methods part 2. Click Here 
Language, Thought and Culture part 1. Click Here

Language, Thought and Culture part 2. Click Here
Where does language come from? part 1. Click Here 
Where does language come from? part 2. Click Here
Language and Brain part 1. Click Here
Language and Brain part 2. Click Here


The example of psycholinguistic final project can be downloaded. here (mediafire) or here (ziddu)
You need password to extract this file, the password is;
www.harrythewise.blogspot.com

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you may read, copy-paste, and download any of ppt, pdf and doc file in this blog as long as you do not forget to include where you get it from. 
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 Thank You!

---

[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics taken on Sunday, 6^th of May 2012, 10.46 a.m.

The precious of time

In our hopes to succeed, we may not be able to be successful sooner, if we waste the time.

If we swear, we use the word "for the sake of Allah".

When God spoke seriously, He (Allah) said, "By the time".

If it is calculated from the use of time, actually we all are losers. So, if you want to be a man that precedence success in a matter of time, always try to be aware of our values ​​in each slice of time.

If we realize how much we value each slice of time, not only nature, but all that is within the authority of God, will be asked to respect us!

so consider the use of our time and make sure that the use of our time is worth.

Meaning of Meaning

Semantics Assignment

Summary of Utterances, Sentences, Propositions and Meaning

Utterances

Utterances are the most concrete and noticeable among those four terms which are used to describe different levels of language. An utterance is produced by speaking (or writing) a piece of language. For example, when I say together, we are invincible. This categorize as one utterance. If another person in the same room also says together, we are invincible, and then we would be dealing with two utterances.

Sentences

Sentences are abstract grammatical elements obtained from utterances. Sentences are abstract because if a first and second person in the room say together, we are invincible with the same intonation, we will want to say that we have met two utterances of the sentences. Therefore, sentences are abstracted, or generalized, from actual language use. One example of this abstraction is direct quotation. If someone reports He said “Together, we are invincible”, she is unlikely to mimic the original speaker exactly. Usually the reporter will use her normal voice and thus filter out types out certain types of information. Speaker seems to recognize that at the level of the sentence these kinds of information are not important, and so discard them. So we can look at sentences from the point of view of the speaker, where they are abstract elements to be made real by uttering them; or from the hearer’s point of view, where they are abstract elements reached by filtering out certain kinds of information from utterances.

Propositions

Propositions can be described as the way of capturing part of the meaning of sentences. They are more abstract than sentences because the same proposition can be represented by several different statements. Moreover in non-statements like questions, orders, etc. they cannot be the complete meaning since such sentences include an indication of the speaker’s attitude to the propositions.

Further step of abstraction is possible for special purposes: to identify propositions in trying to establish rules of valid deduction, logicians discovered that certain elements of grammatical information in sentences were irrelevant. For example, the difference between active and passive sentences; Israel invades Palestine and Palestine is invaded by Israel. From a Logician’s perspective, these sentences are equivalent. Thus the grammatical differences between them will never be significant in a chain of reasoning and can be ignored. These sentences seem to share a description of the same state of affairs. If one is true all are true, if one is false all are false. To capture this fact, logicians identify a common proposition. Such a proposition can be represented in various special ways to avoid confusion with the various sentences which represent it

Some semanticists have borrowed from logicians both this notion of proposition and the use of logical formulae. As we shall see, some linguists employ this notion of proposition in their semantics analysis, often to identify a description of an event or situation which might be shared element in different sentences. For example, the statement Harry kicked the ball, the question Did Harry Kick the ball?, and the command Harry, Kick the ball! Those sentences might be seen to share a propositional element: HARRY KICK THE BALL. In this view, these different things with the same proposition: to assert it as a past event; to question it; or to request someone to bring it about.

Meaning

In linguistics, meaning is what the source or sender expresses, communicates, or covey in their message to the observer or receiver, and what the receiver infers from the current context.

According to Herbert Simon, Simon's basic thesis is that the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence is to be found in the pattern of activations between neurons (rather, "symbol structures" at some aggregate level of analysis) that reading or hearing the expression induces. From the side of the originator, the meaning is that pattern of activations which induced the production of that particular expression. This point of view has some interesting consequences for interpretation and pedagogy that perhaps have been underappreciated. It especially makes clear that the linguistic, historical, and environmental context within which a phrase is received has a direct impact on the meaning of the phrase; furthermore, what follows the phrase is also part of the context, also helping to fix its meaning (disambiguate its interpretation).

Many descriptions and definitions are delivered by many linguists. The meaning of meaning is still debatable, because meaning has no concrete form. Meaning is more abstract than sentences and even propositions. One utterance may have more than one meaning. Sometimes, the meaning beyond one utterance depends on each of every people perspectives. However, the real meaning of meaning is still unrevealed by any linguist experts.

Name              : Hari Subagyo

Student’s No   : D05209036  

I've got this presentation file from my lecturer in semantics lecture. Download Here 
if you want to download my article about sentence, utterance, proposition and meaning. Download Here 

As Usual, you may read, copy-paste, and download any of PPT, Pdf, and Doc file in this blog as long as you do not forget to include where you get it from. 
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Thank You very much!

Semantics Presentation file

Assalamualaikum wr, wb!
At this time, I wanna share some links that contain the presentation file of mine and my friends.
Enjoy to download the semantics presentation file. I will post the articles about them later, so follow my blog, do not miss it. :D

okay here the links
ziddu.com
Polysemy 1
Polysemy 2
Meronymy 1
Hyponymy 1
Hyponymy 2
Synonymy
Homonymy
Antonymy

mediafire
Polysemy 1
Polysemy 2
Meronymy 1
Hyponymy 1
Hyponymy 2
Synonymy
Homonymy
Antonymy

do not forget to comment and join this blog...!!!
Thanks so much for ALL OF MY FRIENDS and ALL THE LOYAL VISITOR!

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Hyponymy

Based on James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith (2007) Hyponym is a sense relation between predicates (or sometimes longer phrases) such that the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the other.[1] Moreover Cruse (1986) define that hyponymy is the lexical relation corresponding to the inclusion of one class in another.[2] In a simple word we can define hyponym as a word that describes things more specifically, e.g.

a.      Carrot and cabbage are hyponyms of vegetable

b.      Rose and jasmine are hyponyms of flower

The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.[3] In that term, vegetable, is more general or inclusive in meaning than its hyponym carrot, which is much more specific in the kind of vegetable it describes. In other words, the predicate vegetable describes a particular region in plant space whose prototype (or focal) examples are fairly distinct from those of other plants, though we have seen that more peripheral members of the extension of vegetable tend to fade into other plants. But the term also subsumes (includes) more specific kinds of red within this region of plants space. In general, sense relationships involving hyponymy are usually structured in this way, with the superordinate term more abstract, general, or schematic than its hyponyms.[4]

When we consider hyponymous relations, we are essentially looking at the meaning of words in some type of hierarchical relationship. You could, in fact, represent the relationships between a set of words such as animal, ant, rose, jasmine, cockroach, dog, flower, cat, insect, living things, plant, flower and vegetable as a hierarchical diagram in the following way:

From this diagram, we can say that "cat is a hyponym of animal" or that 'ant is a hyponym of insect'. We can also say that two or more terms which share the same superordinate (higher-up) term are co-hyponyms. So, cat and dog are co-hyponyms, and the superordinate term is animal. The relation of hyponymy captures the idea of 'is a kind of, as when you give the meaning of a word by saying "rose is a kind of flower". It is often the case that the only thing some people know about the meaning of a word in their language is that it is a hyponym of another term. That is, you may know nothing more about the meaning of rose other than that it is a kind of flower.

It is worth emphasizing that it is not only words for 'things' that are hyponyms. Terms for actions, such as cut, punch, shoot and stab, can all be found as co-hyponyms of the superordinate term injure.[5]
If you want to download my presentation file, just click here.
If you want to download my friend presentation file, just click here 
If you want the article, download here

As Usual, you may read, copy-paste, and download any of PPT, Pdf, and Doc file in this blog as long as you do not forget to include where you get it from. Comment and Follow my blog to support me!

---

[1] James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith. Semantics a Coursebook (USA: Cambridge University Press, 2007) p. 109

[2] Cruse. D.A. Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968) p. 88

[3] Saeed, John I. Semantics (Oxford: Blackwell pub ltd, 1997) p. 68

[4] James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith. Semantics a Coursebook (USA:Cambridge University Press, 2007) p. 110                                                                             

[5] Yule, George. The study of language (New York: cambridge UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1996) p. 116-117

Example of My Reflective Writing

Improving Cultural Knowledge and Understanding through Study Excursion

At glance, study excursion is just like ordinary travelling. We go to the famous place and enjoy it. But, the fact is different. While travelling emphasize on fun elements, study excursion emphasize on the study of cultural elements by coming into tourism places and getting information from the foreigners. I will explain some events and advantages which I got in study excursion on 9^th of December 2011.

The first interesting event is the presentations of international students held on the hall of the hotel start from 08.00 PM – 10.00 PM on Friday 9^th of December 2011. They are from Cambodia, Gambia and Timur Leste. The first presentation was delivered by the international student from Cambodia, Dourng Ratha Augustine (Ratha), the second presentation was explained by the international student from Gambia, Embrima Sarr (Ibrahim), the last presentation was told by Hercio Camilho Fernandes Xavier (Hercio or Xavier) from Timur Leste.

Ratha’s presentation title was Study Excursion; Tradition and Culture of Cambodia. The explanation was about general information about Cambodia, Culture and Tradition, and Symbolization of Cambodia. He explained almost everything about Cambodia. The Geography of Cambodia, the neighbor countries (borders), some ceremonies/ceremonial events, some symbolization of Cambodia, etc. The special thing is I and some of my bedmate friends had special time to have conversation with Ratha for couple minutes. The thing that I got after spending some time with Ratha that He is very aware with cultural product on his country such as; temples, traditional jar, etc. However, this eventually increases my cultural appreciation on cultural products in my country.

The second presentation was delivered by Ibrahim from Gambia. Among the three presentations, Ibrahim spoke English better. He used to speak English since the official language of Gambia is English. His presentation was about general information of Gambia and his cultural shocks when he was in Indonesia for the first time. He explained the territory of Gambia, the borders, the traditional clothes of Gambia, etc. In my surprise, Ibrahim has some good knowledge of Islam. He and I discussed about religious and cultural issues in Indonesia. He was very aware that the culture of Indonesia was influenced by some religions and the history of the regions. One point that I underline after discussion with him intensively for a couple of minutes, improvement on cultural awareness must be balanced with the improvement on religious awareness, so that, we can avoid misunderstanding with the people who have different culture and the people who have different religion. Because being ignorant might cause great misunderstanding which potentially causes problems not only for people around us but also for ourselves as well.

The final presentation was delivered by Hercio from Timur Leste. He was fifth semester student of Geology department at Universitas Gajah Mada. He was considered the most handsome presentator by my girlfriends at that time. The title of his presentation was “Timur Leste”. He shared his knowledge related to his country such as the general knowledge of Timur Leste (the location of Timur Leste, borders, the president, the export commodity etc), the official language used, traditional clothes of Timur Leste, and so on. It was interesting presentation although his English was not good as the other presenters. I could find some similarity in their cultures with the Indonesian cultures and sometime compared it. In the question and answer section, I asked him several questions related to the cultural and political issues in Timur Leste. My first question was about the languages in Timur Leste. Actually, some of the people of Timur Leste were still using Bahasa Indonesia as their daily language. However, it is just a few of them while the others use Timur Leste’s languages (tetum, fataluko, makasae, etc). My next question was about the political issue. I ask his personal opinion about the chance of Timur Leste in joining back with Indonesia. He personally does not want to join back to Indonesia. The essential thing which I get is knowing the similarity and the differences of the cultures will make us know the weakness and the strength of ourselves so it can avoid being selfish and underestimate the others.

After the presentations and question-answer sections finished, we toke photograph together. It was quite interesting experience, while getting fun, we could also learn something and improve ourselves in some aspects especially the improvement of cultural knowledge, awareness and attitude. Hopefully, the next study excursion can be better. Open the mind then we will see the greatness of the world.                                                     

Comparation between Prose and Drama

About Drama

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" (Classical Greek: δρᾶμα, drama), which is derived from "to do" (Classical Greek: δράω, drao). The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.[2] The early modern tragedy Hamlet (1601) by Shakespeare and the classical Athenian tragedy Oedipus the King (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are among the masterpieces of the art of drama. A modern example is Long Day's Journey into Night by Eugene O’Neill (1956).


Intrinsic Elements of Drama

Intrinsic elements of drama are structural elements which are in drama itself. There are eight elements that in drama. They are plot, message, language, dialog, setting, technical Instructions, theme and character. Here, I will explain each of the elements.

1.Plot

Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows arrangement of events and actions within a story. Here a some component that exists in plot ;

Exposition: the start of the story, the situation before the action starts

Rising Action: the series of conflicts and crisis in the story that lead to the climax

Climax: the turning point, the most intense moment—either mentally or in action

Falling Action: all of the action which follows the climax

Resolution: the conclusion, the tying together of all of the threads


2.Message

According to Akhmad Saliman (1996 : 67) message is everything which wants to be delivered by the composer/writer and be delivered directly or indirectly to the audiences/viewers.

Message in drama has two kinds ; written (explisit) message and unwritten (implisit) message. Generally, message is intentionally hidden by the writer of the drama. Only an expert audience who can find the unwritten message (implicit).


3.Language

According to Akhmad Salim (1996 : 68), language which is used in drama is chosen intentionally depend on the function of the language.

Every drama writer has their own style in choosing words as their medium to express their mind and feeling. Language is dealing with words choosing and writing style.

Generally, language which is chosen by author is a simple language (communicative). For instance, a language which is usually used in daily activities, or educatif language.

The used language is chosen in order to make the story of drama interesting and make the dialog more communicative. In order that making a interesting drama, writer often does not care about the rules of standard language.


4.Dialog

the lines spoken by characters in drama or fiction. Some of the characters have their own style to say in dialog depend on their character in the story.


5.Setting

The setting of a literary work is the time and place of the action.

The setting includes all the details of a place and time – the year, the time of day, even the weather.

The place may be a specific country, state, region, community, neighborhood, building, institution, or home.

The setting of a story often helps to create a particular mood, or feeling.


6.Technical instruction

Technical instruction is a limitation that is intentionally included by a drama writer as the interpret guidance for everyone which wants to perform this.

Technical instruction in the drama’s manuscript can be a list of explanation about the scenes, profile of character in story, setting, setting of light, setting of music, setting of stage and properties that must be prepared


7.Theme

The theme of a literary work is its central message, concern, or purpose. A theme can usually be expressed as a generalization, or general statement, about people or life. The theme may be stated directly by the writer although it is more often presented indirectly. When the theme is stated indirectly, the reader must figure out the theme by looking carefully at what the work reveals about the people or about life.


8.Character

Character plays a pivotal role in a drama, novel, short story and all kinds of narratives. Character reflects the personality of the protagonist and other related characters. The method of conveying information about characters in art is called characterization. Characters can be fictional or based on real, historical entities. It can be human, supernatural, mythical, divine, animal or personifications of an abstraction.


About Prose

Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). The English word "prose" is derived from the Latin prōsa, which literally translates as "pooey rose". While there are critical debates on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of communication.


Intrinsic elements of prose

The intrinsic elements of prose are theme, plot, setting, character, point of view and value. Here is the explanation of those elements ;

a.Theme

The theme of a literary work is its central message, concern, or purpose. A theme can usually be expressed as a generalization, or general statement, about people or life. The theme may be stated directly by the writer although it is more often presented indirectly. When the theme is stated indirectly, the reader must figure out the theme by looking carefully the work reveals about the people or about life.


b.Plot

Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows arrangement of events and actions within a story. Here a some component that exists in plot ;

Exposition: the start of the story, the situation before the action starts

Rising Action: the series of conflicts and crisis in the story that lead to the climax

Climax: the turning point, the most intense moment—either mentally or in action

Falling Action: all of the action which follows the climax

Resolution: the conclusion, the tying together of all of the threads


c.Setting

The setting of a literary work is the time and place of the action.

The setting includes all the details of a place and time – the year, the time of day, even the weather.

The place may be a specific country, state, region, community, neighborhood, building, institution, or home.

The setting of a story often helps to create a particular mood, or feeling.


d.Character

Character plays a pivotal role in a drama, novel, short story and all kinds of narratives. Character reflects the personality of the protagonist and other related characters. The method of conveying information about characters in art is called characterization. Characters can be fictional or based on real, historical entities. It can be human, supernatural, mythical, divine, animal or personifications of an abstraction.


e.Point of View

Point of View is the perspective from which a story is told. It is the relationship of the narrator to the story. Commonly, there are just two kinds of point of view. They are ;

a.First-person is told by a character who uses the first-person pronoun “I”.

b.Third-person limited point of view is the point of view where the narrator uses third-person pronouns such as “he” and “she” to refer to the characters.


f.Value/Message

According to Akhmad Saliman (1996 : 67) message is everything which wants to be delivered by the composer/writer and be delivered directly or indirectly to the audiences/viewers.

Message in drama has two kinds ; written (explisit) message and unwritten (implisit) message. Generally, message is intentionally hidden by the writer of the drama. Only an expert audience who can find the unwritten message (implicit).

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/

http://id.shvoong.com/

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/

***Thank You***